home House Industry of Eastern Europe briefly. The main branch of European industry is. Forestry and light industry

Industry of Eastern Europe briefly. The main branch of European industry is. Forestry and light industry

The leading sector of the economy of the countries of the region is industry, mainly manufacturing (mechanical engineering, metallurgical complex, chemical, light and food industries, etc.).

Fuel and economic complex. Today, only Poland and Ukraine use significant amounts of coal for energy needs. All other countries rely on oil and gas imported from Russia. Oil refineries in most countries are located near oil pipelines: Polotsk (Poland), Novopolotsk, Mozyr (Belarus), Kremenchug, Lisichansk, Drohobych (Ukraine), Bratislava (Slovakia), Mazeikiai (Lithuania).

There can be no doubt that Germany and Japan are militarily dependent on the United States to provide "stability" in regions where conflict could disrupt their countries' economies and societies, be it in the Middle East, where Western control may be denied sources of oil, that is, in the Balkans, where war is generating unwanted flows of refugees and migrants to richer and more peaceful countries.

In Japan, the dependence of the United States depends on military power China. Among Japan's neighbors, this depends on the strategic implications of Japan's renewed interest in the subregion. Open defense of independent political and economic role of these two powers in their respective regions and in these two regions of the world continues to shine by their absence or is greatly overshadowed by the timidity of the present ruling generation both in Europe and in Europe in the Asia-Pacific region.

Electricity production is 1384.8 billion kW * h, it is produced mainly at thermal power plants operating on hard coal, brown coal, and fuel oil. Cascades of hydroelectric power stations were built on the Dnieper, Volga - Kama, and the city of Vag (Slovakia). Russia has the oldest nuclear power plant in the world - Obninsk, built in 1954, with a capacity of 5 MW. Nuclear power plants operate in Lithuania (1 reactor with a capacity of 2.4 million kW produces 70% of the country’s electricity, which is the second figure after France), Slovakia (6 reactors provide 56% of the electricity), Hungary (4 reactors account for 37% of the electricity), Ukraine (15 reactors with a capacity of 13.7 million kW generate about 50% of the electricity), the Czech Republic (6 reactors, 30% of the electricity), Russia (31 nuclear reactors, 15% of the electricity). In Russia, since 1968, the Kislogubskaya tidal power plant (near Murmansk) with a capacity of 400 kW has been operating.

Proposals of a grand historical vision, such as those formulated by General de Gaulle for Europe, or a more modest proposal for the integration of Asia without the United States, such as that of the Prime Minister of Malaysia, are exceptions that confirm this trend. Both proposals immediately faced relentless opposition from the United States. At that time, France had the political will, but did not contribute to the creation of an economic strategy and an independent military structure.

Competition or complementarity of the three economic powers?

In any case, the Franco-German initiative to create a European army collapsed against the determined opposition of Washington. But the future of power - or the definition of power - cannot simply be reduced to the technological dimension. And even if that were true, predicting the collapse of the competitiveness of the American economy amounts to the sin of over-optimism or over-pessimism - depending on the political perspective of the observer. And this is because the reality is that the United States continues to lead basic research and are an innovative nation in the introduction of high-tech products.

Ferrous metallurgy. Both local and imported raw materials (iron ore from Ukraine) are used. The largest metallurgical areas and centers of the region are the Central region (Kursk Magnetic Anomaly) and Sheep Skull (Russia), Donbass, Dnieper region (Ukraine), Katowice (Upper Silesia in Poland), Ostrava, Kladno, Most (Czech Republic), Kosice (Slovakia), Miskolc, Dunaujvaros (Hungary). A powerful pipe rolling production has been formed in Ukraine (Lugansk, Dnepropetrovsk, Nikopol, Novomoskovsk, Khartsyzsk).

It distorts and falsely argues for the loss of US economic hegemony by comparing the post-war years when the United States had no economic rival. Over the past two decades, the US economy's share of gross world product has remained at 22%. When services and technology are taken into account, the United States maintains its advantages in key areas such as software manufacturing, aerospace, industrial and agricultural chemicals and engineering, turbines, and office and computer products.

Non-ferrous metallurgy. Its focus on the production of aluminum (Székesfehérvár, Ajka in Hungary; Khibiny, Karelia, Ural in Russia), copper (Lower Silesia in Poland, Ural in Russia), lead and zinc (Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine, Russia), nickel can be traced (Russia Ukraine). Hungary ranks among the first in the world for the production and consumption of aluminum products per capita.

When faced with the argument that large multinational corporations no longer have a home for the global diversification of their operations, it must be remembered that the nationality of the entrepreneurs who direct and control these entities, which are subject to American law, is American. crisis or conflict would demonstrate their loyalty to Washington. 40% of the world's largest multinational corporations are based in the United States, compared to 16% in Japan.

Additionally, when countless foreign corporations established operations within the United States due to the strategic importance of the North American market, they also became subject to that country's laws. The structural weaknesses of the yen, as well as the uncertainties and popularity that accompany the project, and the popular failure that accompanies the Maastricht project, mean that the dollar has no competitor of the same proportions in terms of global investment and trade. 70% of all commercial and financial transactions in the world are still in foreign currency.

Mechanical engineering. Heavy engineering is developed in Russia, Ukraine, and Poland. The leading branch of specialization is power engineering. Its traditional focus is the production of powerful steam boilers (Volgodonsk - Russia, the world famous Attomash plant) and equipment for nuclear power plants (Kharkov - Ukraine).

With all its vicissitudes and loss of purchasing power, the dollar continues to be the dominant denomination in reserves as well as in investment valuations. While it is true that when the value of the dollar falls it also suffers from investment costs, another source of value is the very fact of its international recognition as an exchange model and primary reference currency. After all, whoever has an investment in dollars protects this currency, starting with the same central banks of the world. The fact that so many dollars exist in the world and are in the hands of investors of all nationalities represents a relative guarantee against radical loss of value in international markets.

The automotive industry is concentrated in all countries, the most developed in Russia, produces more than 1.3 million cars annually and ranks 13th in the world (ZIL - Moscow, GAZ - Nizhny Novgorod, KamAZ - Naberezhnye Chelny, VAZ - Tolyatti, PAZ - Pavlov , LiAZ - Likino-Dulvo), Ukraine - 215.7 thousand cars (Avto-ZAZ - Zaporozhye, KrAZ - Kremenchug, LuAZ - Lutsk, LAZ - Lvov), Belarus - 23.1 thousand cars (MAZ - Minsk, BelAZ - Zhodino), Czech Republic - 604.9 thousand cars (Skoda - Pilsen, Tatra - Kopřivnice), Poland - 625.4 thousand cars (SAN (buses) - Warsaw), Hungary - 152 thousand cars ( "Icara" - Budapest). Trolleybus factories in Engels (Russia) and Dnepropetrovsk (Ukraine) are leading enterprises in this profile. Dozens of enterprises produce parts, components and equipment for cars.

Thus, a new European currency based on a German framework would become a unit of exchange for a market that would cover most of Europe - one third of the total population of the industrialized world. Dollarized access to this market will no longer be as easy for North American exporters. Unlike the Japanese financial market, Europeans will demonstrate greater flexibility in attracting foreign capital and expanding their financial network around the world. The same lack of reciprocity and symmetrical financial relationship between Western and Japanese capital markets turns out to be the greatest enemy of the globalization of Japanese financial power.

Railway engineering is represented in Russia (Kaliningrad, Kolomna, Ryazan, Tver, Mytishchi), in Ukraine (Kharkov, Lugansk, Dnepropetrovsk, Dneprodzerzhinsk, Mariupol, Kremenchug), in the Czech Republic (Skoda - Pilsen, trams - ČKD - Prague) , in Latvia (electric trains are produced in Riga), in Poland (Upper Silesia).

Shipyards and shipyards were built in Russia (St. Petersburg, Arkhangelsk, Murmansk - sea shipbuilding, Nizhny Novgorod - river), Ukraine (Nikolaev, Kherson - sea, Kyiv - river), Poland (Gdansk, Gdynia, Szczecin), Slovakia (Komarno - river). In Poland, Russia, and Ukraine, large-tonnage vessels (tankers, refrigerators, trawlers, dry cargo ships), as well as small-tonnage barges, lighter carriers and boats are produced. Ship repairs are carried out in all ports. In Russia, in Nizhny Novgorod, the production of hydrofoil ships was developed for the first time in the world. Nuclear icebreakers are manufactured in St. Petersburg and Vyborg (Russia).

This is also strong evidence that Japanese banking is unable to compete in the high world international finance. During the current decade, the international financial system will face a shock of proportions as the dollar cannot find a replacement and that international finance remains driven by rising US budget deficits.

Europe is a mega-market that can discriminate against foreign products - Latin American bananas or Japanese ones. Their political and commercial preferences are reserved for the countries of Central and Eastern Europe or, in moments of generosity, for the countries of the Maghreb, in particular Morocco, trying to control something of this form of destabilizing flows of immigrants from these countries.

The aviation industry is developed in Russia, Ukraine and Poland. The electronic and electrical industry has gained significant development in Poland (production of televisions, radios, communications equipment), Hungary (hardware telephones, electrical equipment), Latvia (VEF - radio and telephone equipment - Riga). Great importance this industry is also in Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and the Czech Republic.

The prevailing view in the Third World during the Cold War that social democratic Europe was the basis for the construction of the Third Way has disappeared. Today, European social democracy in the countries where it governs has only accepted and implemented neoliberal orthodoxy.

Others dreamed of finding new development models in the “Pacific Basin”, with its center in Japan and “Asian dragons”. It is also intended to hide that Japan, despite its technological prowess, lacks modernity in its financial market, facing huge speculative waves that have caused a recession that is entering its second year. Additionally, the Japanese political model is one-party and heavily influenced by organized crime and dominated by political cliques, where corruption is regulated and a matter of everyday information.

Some industries in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine provide machinery for agricultural production.

Chemical industry. It is dominated by oil, gas and coal chemistry. Mineral fertilizers (nitrogen, phosphate, potassium) are produced in Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Hungary, and Estonia. The production of film and photographic materials is developed in Poland, Ukraine (Svema), Russia (Tasma). Agricultural waste in Russia and Belarus is processed at numerous hydrolysis plants into alcohol, feed yeast, glucose, and furfural. The chemical industry is powerfully developed in Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine, and Russia.

There is no need to deny the tendency of capital to seek higher levels of concentration and centralization. There is also no doubt that large capitals and transnational corporations today demand more and more large markets, in qualitative terms of consumption and quantitative number of inhabitants. This was the logic that prompted the formation of the European Economic Community.

Proof of this is the current state of European “integration” and the failure of the political project envisaged in the Maastricht Treaty. Across Western Europe, people are reminding their rulers that the supposed industrial and technological complementarity in Europe does not lead to a desire to limit the sovereignty and self-determination of each people in society. On the other hand, in any bloc, as in Europe, stagnation in integration processes does not stop the processes of commercial communication or the penetration of foreign capital.

Pharmaceuticals are a traditional industry for Slovakia, Poland (POLFA), Hungary (Hinoin, Gedeon Richter) and others.

Construction industry. It processes local raw materials and is represented by the production of cement, slate, reinforced concrete structures, wall blocks; the production of glass, panels, and lightweight aggregates (perlite, expanded clay) is rapidly growing.

The main targets of repression and pressure will be the main markets of the United States, Japan and the European Community. And in the event of a complete commercial war, access to the markets of the countries of the South will also be subject to competition, confinement to its own sphere, starting with "America for Americans", without the United States resigning to lose its access to markets in the East.

Despite everything, there remains the excellent glue of capitalism as a whole, which is no longer anti-communism, but the need to impose order in this new phase of technological development, as well as new outbreaks of rebellion in the South - the still unresolved cause of poverty - and in Eastern Europe - the loss of the balancing forces of the Soviet Union.

Forestry and woodworking industry. This is the oldest branch of the economy in Russia (northern territories - Arkhangelsk, Kotlas), Poland (furniture production), Slovakia (furniture and sawmill industry), Czech Republic (plywood and particle board production), Belarus (match industry - Borisov, Gomel, Pinsk ), Ukraine (Polesie, Carpathians). The Baltic countries produce plywood, furniture, musical instruments, prefabricated houses, and sports equipment. Firewood harvesting amounts to 41.2 million m3.

Paradoxically, but understandably, the US hegemony required by the capitalist system for its orderly functioning is also a source of disorder. Clinton must decide to close her country's budget gap, which destabilizes global capitalism as a whole, or must leave it untouched so as not to destabilize her own administration, which would involve rebellions that would provoke drastic restrictive measures.

Even more serious for global stability is the militarism that continues to accompany American hegemony. The insistence on playing the role of international gendarme is a major source of budget gaps and disables the leadership apparatus to significantly reduce military budgets. The fact that the United States has moved troops overseas more than 30 times over the past three years underscores the Pentagon's determination to take on new roles in a post-"world." cold war" and promote new and new doctrines to protect both its budget and its reasonableness.

Light industry. It has a long history. Textile regions have formed in the region: in Russia - Moscow and Ivanovo, in Poland - Lodz. Developed wool industry (Czech Republic, Poland, Russia), cotton industry (Russia, Estonia, Poland), linen industry (Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine).

The leather and footwear industry is a specific industry for the Czech Republic (Zlin - Tomasz Baťa enterprise), Poland (Warsaw, Lublin), Hungary (Budapest), Russia (Moscow, St. Petersburg), Belarus (Vitebsk).

The capitalist system as a whole, including the tripolar constellation of three powers, requires an international repressive force capable of acting when their vital interests are affected, as was the case in the Persian Gulf. In other circumstances - the war in the former Yugoslavia, the ethnic national conflicts proliferating in West Asia or, in terms of the obsessive quarrels the United States maintains with Cuba, Libya or North Korea - the American adventurous impulse comes to provoke new world instabilities, even from the point of from the point of view of their Western “allies”.

Food industry. The industry is important in all countries of the region. In the north, processing of livestock products predominates, in the south - crop production. The leading industries are:

In Poland - fishery, sugar, production of fresh frozen vegetables, fruits, semi-finished products, meat processing;

In the Czech Republic - brewing (Pilsen beer), sugar, confectionery;

In Slovakia - sugar, wine production;

In Hungary - oil industry, fruit and vegetable canning, meat processing, winemaking (Tokaj wines in the Tokaj area), production of fresh frozen poultry;

In Latvia and Estonia - dairy, meat processing, fish;

In Lithuania - dairy, meat processing;

In Ukraine - flour and cereal, oil and fat, sugar, fruit and vegetable canning, meat processing, winemaking;

In Belarus - dairy, meat processing.

World-famous pencil factory (Koh-i-Nor in Ceske Budejovice produces 1 million pencils every day), amber products (Jurmala in Latvia and Kaliningrad in Russia), toy industry (Zhodino in Belarus, where soft toys are produced ). Glassblowing art originated in Bohemia (Czech Republic) back in the Middle Ages. Bohemian crystal has been famous all over the world for almost 500 years and has no equal. In some countries of the region, artistic crafts are developed: painting wooden products (Khokhloma in Russia, Petrikovka in Ukraine), making toys from clay (Dymkovo in Russia), crystal products (Gus-Khrustalny, Dyatkovo in Russia).

One of the important problems of industrial development in the region is the outdated material and technical base in some industries, working mainly on equipment of post-war and sometimes pre-war production (especially in most metallurgical plants in old industrial areas). Therefore, equipment modernization is one of the primary tasks of industrial enterprises.

Eastern Europe as a historical and geographical region includes: Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, countries formed as a result of the collapse of the former Yugoslavia (Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, Macedonia), Albania, Latvia, Lithuania , Estonia.

There is also an opinion that the countries of this region should be classified as either Central or Central Europe, since it would be more correct to call Eastern Europe Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova and the European part of Russia.

But the name “Eastern Europe” stuck with the countries of this region and is recognized throughout the world.

Geographical position. Natural resources

The countries of Eastern Europe represent a single natural territorial massif stretching from the Baltic to the Black and Adriatic Seas. The region and adjacent countries are based on an ancient Precambrian platform, covered by a cover of sedimentary rocks, as well as an area of Alpine folding.

An important feature of all countries in the region is their transit position between the countries of Western Europe and the CIS.

The countries of Eastern Europe differ from each other in geographical location, configuration, size of territory, and wealth of natural resources.

Natural resource reserves include: coal (Poland, Czech Republic), oil and natural gas (Romania), iron ores (countries of the former Yugoslavia, Romania, Slovakia), bauxite (Hungary), chromite (Albania).

In general, it must be said that the region is experiencing a shortage of resources, and in addition, it is a striking example of the “incompleteness” of a set of minerals. So, in Poland there are large reserves coal, copper ores, sulfur, but almost no oil, gas, or iron ore. In Bulgaria, on the contrary, there is no coal, although there are significant reserves of lignite, copper ores, and polymetals.

Population

The region's population is about 130 million people, but the demographic situation, which is difficult throughout Europe, is the most alarming in Eastern Europe. Despite the active demographic policy pursued over several decades, natural population growth is very small (less than 2%) and continues to decline. Bulgaria and Hungary are even experiencing natural population decline. The main reason for this is the disruption of the age-sex structure of the population as a result of the Second World War.

In some countries, natural increase is higher than the regional average (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia), and it is the largest in Albania - 20%.

The largest country in the region is Poland (about 40 million people), the smallest is Estonia (about 1.5 million people).

Eastern Europe has always been an arena of national and ethnic conflicts. After the collapse of the socialist system, the situation became more complicated, especially on the territory of the most multinational country in the region - Yugoslavia, where the conflict escalated into an interethnic war.

The most urbanized country in Eastern Europe is the Czech Republic (3/4 of the population lives in cities). There are quite a lot of urban agglomerations in the region, the largest of which are Upper Silesia (in Poland) and Budapest (in Hungary). But most countries are characterized by historically formed small towns and villages, and the Baltic countries are characterized by hamlets.

Farm

The countries of Eastern Europe today are not characterized by a pronounced socio-economic unity. But in general we can say that _. in the 2nd half of the 20th century. Great changes have occurred in the economies of Eastern European countries. Firstly, industries developed at a faster pace - by the 80s, Europe had become one of the most industrial regions of the world, and secondly, previously very backward regions also began to develop industrially (For example, Slovakia in the former Czechoslovakia, Moldova in Romania, northeast Poland).

Such results became possible thanks to the implementation of regional policy.

Energy

Due to a shortage of oil reserves, this region is focused on coal, most of the electricity is generated by thermal power plants (more than 60%), but hydroelectric power plants and nuclear power plants also play an important role. One of the largest nuclear power plants was built in the region - Kozloduy in Bulgaria.

Metallurgy

In the post-war period, the industry actively grew and developed in all countries of the region, with non-ferrous metallurgy relying mainly on its own raw materials, and ferrous metallurgy on imported ones.

Mechanical engineering The industry is also represented in all countries, but is most developed in the Czech Republic (primarily machine tool manufacturing, production household appliances

and computer technology); Poland and Romania are distinguished by the production of metal-intensive machines and structures, Hungary, Bulgaria, Latvia - by the electrical industry; In addition, shipbuilding is developed in Poland and Estonia.

Chemical industry

The chemical industry of the region lags far behind that of Western Europe due to the lack of raw materials for the most advanced branches of chemistry - oil. But we can still note the pharmaceuticals of Poland and Hungary, the glass industry of the Czech Republic.

Agriculture of the region

Mainly meets the food needs of the population. Under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, significant changes occurred in the structure of the economy of the countries of Eastern Europe: the agro-industrial complex emerged, and specialization of agricultural production took place. It was most clearly manifested in grain farming and in the production of vegetables, fruits, and grapes.

The economic structure of the region is heterogeneous: in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland, and the Baltic countries, the share of livestock farming exceeds the share of crop farming; in the rest, the ratio is still the opposite. Due to the diversity of soil and climatic conditions, several crop production zones can be distinguished: wheat is grown everywhere, but in the north (Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) Rye and potatoes play a role, vegetable growing and horticulture are cultivated in the central part of the subregion, and the “southern” countries specialize in subtropical crops.

The main crops grown in the region are wheat, corn, vegetables, and fruits.

The main wheat and corn regions of Eastern Europe were formed within the Middle and Lower Danube lowlands and the Danube hilly plain (Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria).

Hungary has achieved the greatest success in grain growing.

Vegetables, fruits, and grapes are cultivated almost everywhere in the subregion, but there are areas where they primarily determine specialization Agriculture. These countries and regions also have their own specialization in terms of product range.

For example, Hungary is famous for its winter varieties of apples, grapes, and onions; Bulgaria - oilseeds; Czech Republic - hops, etc.

Animal husbandry.

The northern and central countries of the region specialize in dairy and meat and dairy cattle breeding and pig breeding, while the southern countries specialize in mountain pasture meat and wool animal husbandry.

Transport

In Eastern Europe, which lies at the crossroads of routes that have long connected the eastern and western parts of Eurasia, the transport system has been developing over many centuries. Nowadays, railway transport is the leader in terms of transportation volume, BUT road and sea transport are also intensively developing. The presence of major ports contributes to the development of foreign economic relations, shipbuilding, ship repair, and fishing.

1. Intraregional differences

2. The countries of Eastern Europe can be conditionally divided into 3 groups according to the commonality of their EGP, resources, and level of development.

3. Northern group: Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia. These countries are still characterized by a low degree of integration, but there are common tasks in the development of the maritime economy.

Central group: Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary. The economy of the first two countries is of a clearly industrial nature. The Czech Republic ranks first in the region in terms of industrial output per capita.

Southern group: Romania, Bulgaria, countries of the former Yugoslavia, Albania. In the past, these were the most backward countries, and now, despite major changes in their economy, the countries of this group lag behind the countries of the 1st and 2nd groups in most indicators. Home > Document 40) Industry
Western Europe : branches of specialization and Until recently, WE relied on its own resources (coal). Now there is a transition to oil and natural gas, produced both in the region itself - in the North Sea (1/3 of needs), and imported from developing countries and Russia. The share of oil and gas in the fuel and energy balance is about 45%. Thermal power plants generate more than 50% of the electricity, and hydroelectric power plants - about 15%. Nuclear power plants occupy an important place. Metallurgical industry WE was basically formed even before the start of the scientific and technological revolution era. Ferrous metallurgy developed primarily in Germany, Great Britain, France, Spain, Belgium, and Luxembourg. After WWII, metallurgy centers began to be located in seaports with a focus on importing higher quality and cheaper iron ore. Recently, there has been a trend in the iron and steel industry towards the construction of smaller plants (mini-mills). Non-ferrous metallurgy industries have also developed: aluminum smelting - in France, Italy, Greece, Norway, Switzerland, Germany, Austria; copper smelting - in Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy, Belgium. Mechanical engineering and metalworking - leading industries in WE, accounting for about 1/3 of the region's industrial output and 2/3 of its exports. All major branches of mechanical engineering have developed, but transport engineering (automotive, shipbuilding) and machine tool building are especially important. In terms of the general level of development of mechanical engineering, Germany, Great Britain, France, and Italy stand out first. Chemical industry in WE it ranks 2nd after mechanical engineering. Major centers petrochemical plants are located near the Rhine, Thames, Seine, Elbe, Rhone; they combine this industry with oil refining. Light industry WE- Old industrial textile areas in Great Britain, Belgium, France, Italy continue to operate, but their importance is small, and, in addition, light industry is shifting to Southern Europe, where there are reserves of cheap labor. Industrial stocks oil available in the Netherlands, France; coal- in Germany (Ruhr basin), Great Britain (Welsh basin, Newcastle basin); iron ore- in France (Lorraine), Sweden; non-ferrous metal ores- in Germany, Spain, Italy; potassium salts- in Germany, France, etc. But many deposits are close to depletion. Germany It is distinguished by the mining of hard and brown coal. There is little domestic oil and natural gas. France. Main production regions coal are Lorraine(9 million tons) and the coalfields of the Massif Central. Production gas does not exceed 3 billion cubic meters. m. - one of the largest gas fields in France - Lac in the Pyrenees, has been mostly exhausted. Great Britain The main sources of energy are coal and oil, and to a lesser extent natural gas. The coal mining industry is one of the oldest industries in the UK. At the beginning of the century, British coal dominated the world market, but now more than 80 million tons of coal are mined in Great Britain annually. The main coal mining areas are Cardiff, South Wales and Central England (Sheffield). Oil is produced on the North Sea shelf off the east coast of England and Scotland. Annual production is more than 94 million tons. The main oil refining plants are located in Southampton, Cheshire, and Yorkshire. Income from oil exports reaches 150 million pounds sterling. Gas production is 55 billion cubic meters. m. per year and grows annually. Electric power generation is based on thermal and hydroelectric power plants. Numerous hydroelectric power plants are located in the mountainous regions of Scotland and Wales, and thermal power plants are located in coal mining areas. The share of nuclear power plants is small, although last years there is an increase in their construction. IR-Coal basins: Yorkshire, Northumberland-Durham, South Wales. Natural gas: Leman-Bank, Brent, Morekham, Lockton, West Sol, Hewett, Indefati-gable, Frigg, Wyking. Oil: Brent, Fortis, Statfjord, Cormorant, Nynian, Piper, Fulmar. Iron ore: Artleborough, Northamptonshire, Frodingham, Northumberland-Durham

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In the CEE countries in the 50-80s, a large industrial potential was created, designed mainly to cover the needs of the region and close interaction with the national economy of the USSR, where a significant part of industrial products was sent. This focus industrial development was reflected in the formation of the industry structure, which differed in a number of features.

During industrialization, fuel, energy and metallurgical bases were created, which served as the basis for the development of the machine-building industry. It is mechanical engineering in almost all countries of the region (excluding Albania) that has become the leading industry and the main supplier of export products. The chemical industry, including organic synthesis, was almost re-created. The rapid development of mechanical engineering, chemistry and electric power contributed to the fact that their share in gross industrial output reached half. At the same time, it decreased significantly specific gravity products of the light and food-flavoring industries.

The fuel and energy industry of the region was created on the basis of the use of local resources (mostly in Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania) and imported energy sources (mostly in Hungary, Bulgaria). In the total fuel and energy balance, the share of local resources ranged from 1/4 (Bulgaria, Hungary) to 3/4 (Poland, Romania). In accordance with the structure of local resources, most countries were characterized by a coal orientation with the widespread use of brown coals of low calorific value. This led to higher specific capital investments in the production of fuel and electricity and increased their cost.

CEE is one of the largest coal-mining regions in the world. In the second half of the 90s, more than 150 million tons of coal were mined there per year (130-135 in Poland and up to 20-25 in the Czech Republic). The CEE countries are the world's first region for brown coal production (about 230-250 million tons per year). But if the main production of hard coal is concentrated in one basin (it is divided by the Polish-Czech border into two unequal parts - Upper Silesian and Ostrava-Karvinsky), then brown coal is mined in all countries, and from many deposits. More of it is mined in the Czech Republic and Poland (50-70 million tons each), Romania, S.R. Yugoslavia and Bulgaria (30-40 million tons each). Brown coal (like a smaller part of hard coal) is consumed mainly at thermal power plants near mining sites. Significant fuel and electric energy complexes have been formed there - the main bases for the production of electricity. Among them, larger complexes are located in Poland (Upper Silesian, Belchatuvsky, Kujawsky, Bogatynsky), the Czech Republic (North Czech), Romania (Oltensky), Serbia (Belgrade and Kosovo), Bulgaria (East Maritsky). In Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Albania, the share of hydroelectric power plants in electricity production is high, and in Hungary, Bulgaria, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, and Slovenia - gas stations. Some power plants also use natural gas (mostly imported from Russia, and local in Romania). Electricity production in the region reached 370 billion kWh per year in the 80s. Electricity consumption was significantly higher than production due to its systematic purchase in the former USSR (over 30 billion kWh per year), especially in Hungary, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia.

The CEE countries were connected to each other by high-voltage power lines and, together with the power systems of Russia, Ukraine, Moldova and Belarus, formed a single power system. In CEE, an oil refining industry has been created that is sufficient to meet the needs for petroleum products. It grew on the basis of large oil supplies mainly from Russia, delivered via the Druzhba oil pipeline system (to Poland, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Hungary) and by sea from Novorossiysk (to Bulgaria). Hence the localization of larger refineries on oil pipeline routes (Plock, Bratislava, Sashalombatta) or in seaports (Burgas, Nevodra, Gdansk). These refineries (with a capacity of 8-13 million tons) served as the basis for the development of basic petrochemical plants in the respective countries. In the 90s, with a decrease in oil supplies from Russia and an increase in imports from OPEC member states, CEE countries were forced to re-equip some of the capacities of refineries that had previously been built with Russian oil in mind.

Before World War II, metallurgy was represented mainly by iron and steel enterprises in the Czech and Polish lands, lead-zinc plants in southern Poland and copper smelting in Serbia (Bor). But in 1950-1980. New large ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy plants were built in the region. By the end of the 80s, the annual production of steel reached 55 million tons, copper - 750 thousand tons, aluminum - 800 thousand tons, lead and zinc - 350-400 thousand tons each. The main producers of iron and steel were Czechoslovakia, Poland and Romania. In each of them, large plants were built either on the basis of domestic coking coal (Poland, Czechoslovakia), or mainly imported (Romania), but all on imported iron ore. Therefore, they were built in the corresponding coal basins (Upper Silesian, Ostrava-Karvina) or on the routes for the import of iron-containing raw materials and coking coal from outside, in particular on the banks of the Danube (Galati and Calarasi in Romania, Dunaujvaros in Hungary and Smederevo in Serbia). By 1998, steel production had decreased to 35 million tons.

Non-ferrous metallurgy factories were created mainly on the local raw material base. This industry has received greater development in Poland (copper, zinc), the former Yugoslavia (copper, aluminum, lead and zinc), Bulgaria (lead, zinc, copper), Romania (aluminum). The copper smelting industry of Poland (reached level of over 400 thousand tons of copper) and the aluminum industry of a number of republics of the former Yugoslavia (300-350 thousand tons) have good prospects; There are significant reserves of high quality bauxite in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Montenegro. On their basis, aluminum smelters were built in the areas of Zadar (Croatia), Mostar (Bosnia and Herzegovina), Podgorica (Montenegro) and Kidricevo (Slovenia). But the largest aluminum smelter in the region operates in Slatina (in southern Romania), using domestic and imported raw materials. Yugoslavia and Hungary were suppliers of bauxite and alumina to other countries (Poland, Slovakia, Romania, but most of all to Russia).

The scale and structure of metallurgy significantly affected the nature and specialization of mechanical engineering. In particular, in Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Romania its metal-intensive industries are more widely represented, and in the former Yugoslavia and Bulgaria - industries that use large quantities of non-ferrous metals (cable production, electrical engineering, material handling equipment).

The main specialization of mechanical engineering in CEE countries is the production of vehicles and agricultural machinery, machine tools and technological equipment, electrical products and instruments. Each country has developed a specialization aimed at covering the basic needs of the region itself and former USSR. First of all, Poland (especially fishing vessels), Croatia specialized in the production of sea vessels, locomotives, passenger and freight cars - Latvia, Czech Republic, Poland, Romania, buses - Hungary, minibuses - Latvia, electric cars and motorcycles - Bulgaria, excavators -- Estonia, etc.

Specialization was also great in the defense industry. Even as part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, its main “arsenal” was the Czech Republic (especially the famous Skoda factories in Pilsen). The location of the newly created defense industry gravitated towards the “inland” regions of the countries, especially to the foothills and intermountain basins of the Carpathians, the Dinaric Highlands and Stara Planina.

In general, the location of mechanical engineering is characterized by a high concentration of enterprises within the center and north of the Czech lands, the Middle Danube valley (including Budapest) and its tributaries the Morava and Váh. In Poland, this industry is dispersed across major cities the middle part of the country (the main centers are Warsaw, Poznan, Wroclaw), as well as the Upper Silesian agglomeration. There are mechanical engineering centers in the Bucharest - Ploiesti - Brasov zone (Romania), as well as in the capital cities - Sofia, Belgrade and Zagreb.

From 1/3 to 1/2 of mechanical engineering products of CEE countries were exported. At the same time, exchanging these products mainly within the CMEA member countries, the countries of the region were to a small extent affected by the main engine of scientific and technological progress in the world - competition. Low mutual demands, especially on product quality, led to the fact that in the conditions of transition to market economy and inclusion in world economy a significant part of the machinery and equipment produced turned out to be uncompetitive. There was a large decline in production in the industry and at the same time there was an increase in the import of higher quality equipment from Western Europe, the USA and Japan. Characteristic fact; The Czech Republic is one of the countries with developed mechanical engineering, in which in the 80s machinery and equipment accounted for 55-57% of its exports and only about 1/3 of imports; already in the early 90s it began to purchase much more machinery and equipment than to sell them. There is a painful process of transformation of the entire machine-building complex of the countries of the region, during which hundreds of large enterprises found themselves on the verge of collapse and bankruptcy. The mechanical engineering industry of the Czech Republic, Poland and Hungary began to adapt to new conditions faster than other countries.

During the post-war period, the chemical industry was essentially re-created in CEE. At the first stage, when mainly large basic chemical enterprises were built (especially for the production mineral fertilizers and chlorine-containing products), Poland and Romania, which had large reserves of the necessary raw materials, found themselves in a more favorable position. Later, as the organic synthesis industry developed, its production began to be created in other CEE countries, but mostly on the basis of oil and natural gas imported from Russia (and in Romania, their local resources) and coke chemistry (Poland, Czechoslovakia); specialization in the production of pharmaceutical products (especially Poland, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria) and small-scale chemicals has increased.

The most important territorial groups of enterprises in the chemical and oil refining industry are tied, firstly, to the main coal mining basins (primarily the Upper Silesian and North Bohemian), where, in addition to coal chemistry, industries that used oil and petroleum products supplied through pipelines were later “pulled”; secondly, to the centers for refining imported oil that arose at the intersection of main oil pipelines with large rivers (Plock in Poland, Bratislava in Slovakia, Saskha-lombatta in Hungary, Pancevo in Serbia), as well as in seaports (Burgas in Bulgaria, Rijeka region in Croatia, Koper in Slovenia, Navodari in Romania, Gdansk in Poland); thirdly, to sources of natural gas, either produced locally (Transylvania in the center of Romania) or received through gas pipelines from Russia (Potisje in eastern Hungary, in the middle reaches of the Vistula in eastern Poland).

Light industry satisfies the basic needs of the population in fabrics, clothing, and footwear; a significant part of its products is exported. CEE countries occupy a prominent place in Europe in the production of cotton, wool and linen fabrics, leather shoes, as well as such specific products as costume jewelry, art glass and art ceramics (Czech Republic). The main areas of the textile industry historically developed in the center of Poland (Lodz) and on both sides of the Sudeten Mountains - in the south of Poland and in the north of the Czech Republic.

The region has a large shoe industry - in the 80s, over 500 million pairs of shoes were produced per year. It is more developed in Poland, the Czech Republic, Romania, and Croatia. In particular, the Czech Republic is among the leading countries in the world in the production and export of footwear per capita. Well-known centers in the industry include Zlín (in the Czech Republic), Radom and Helmek (Poland), Timisoara and Cluj-Napoca (Romania), and Borovo and Zagreb (Croatia).

CEE has all the main branches of the food industry, but at the same time, each country specializes in the production of certain types of products in accordance with the nature of local agricultural raw materials and national customs in the consumption of certain food products. In the northern group of countries, the share of industries processing livestock products is much higher; Among products of plant origin, their share is high in the production of sugar and beer. Southern countries are distinguished by the production of vegetable oil, canned vegetables, grape wines, fermented tobacco and tobacco products. A significant part of these types of products from sub-sectors specialized in the north and south of the region is intended for export.

In the context of the transition to a market economy in CEE countries, the main changes in industry consist of a decrease in the share of basic industries (coal and ferrous metallurgy), as well as mechanical engineering. Particularly significant are intra-industry changes towards a reduction in production with increased energy and material intensity. A number of countries in the region receive loans from Western Europe for the purchase of high-tech equipment and the replacement of outdated production facilities with new ones, the products of which are in demand on the world market. Industrial modernization progressed more successfully in the 1990s in Hungary, the Czech Republic and Poland. The most difficult situation in industry is in the republics of the former Yugoslavia (with the exception of Slovenia); they became embroiled in a decades-long conflict that greatly affected their economy.

Agriculture. Expanding agricultural production is one of the important areas of promising specialization for CEE countries. For this, the region has favorable soil and climatic conditions. During the post-war period, gross agricultural output increased significantly, and the yield of main crops and livestock productivity increased several times. But in terms of the general level of development, especially in terms of labor productivity, the agriculture of the CEE countries is still significantly inferior to that of Western Europe. In this regard, there are differences among individual CEE countries. For example, there is a high level of agriculture in the Czech Republic, Hungary and lower in the countries of the Balkan Peninsula and Poland. In general, the population of CEE is provided with basic agricultural products and a considerable part of them can be exported. In turn, the region, like Western Europe, needs to import tropical products and some types of agricultural raw materials (primarily cotton). In the process of transition to a market economy, CEE agriculture is increasingly encountering difficulties in selling products on Western markets in the context of the crisis of overproduction and intense competition existing there. At the same time, close to CEE there is an extensive Russian market, to which, on new, mutually beneficial terms, products that are in short supply for Russia are supplied in large quantities, primarily vegetables, fruits, grapes and processed goods.

The place of the CEE region in European agricultural production is determined mainly by the production of grain, potatoes, sugar beets, sunflowers, vegetables, fruits and meat and dairy products. In 1996-1998 CEE countries produced on average about 95 million tons of grain per year (almost 40% more than Russia, but half as much as Western European countries). Of this amount, the main grain crops - wheat, corn and barley - accounted for 33, 28 and 13 million tons, respectively. But there are large country-by-country differences in the composition of the dominant grain crops and the volume of their production. The largest grain producer - Poland (in volume is comparable to the UK, but inferior to Ukraine) stands out for the production of wheat and rye. In the southern group of countries, along with wheat, a lot of corn is grown (primarily in Romania, Hungary and Serbia). It is this group of countries that, together with Denmark and France, stands out as having the largest grain production per capita in Europe. In the diet of the inhabitants of the southern group of countries, beans stand out, while in the northern group, especially in Poland, potatoes are prominent. Poland alone grew almost as much potatoes as Germany, France and Great Britain combined. In the Middle and Lower Danube plains within Hungary, Serbia, Romania and Bulgaria, many sunflowers are grown; their lands produce more sunflower seeds than all of Western Europe (only Ukraine is a larger producer in Europe). In the northern group of countries (especially in Poland), another oilseed crop is widespread - rapeseed. Flax has been cultivated in the Baltic states and Poland for a long time. More sugar beets are also grown there, although this crop has become widespread in all CEE countries. This region is a large producer of vegetables, fruits and grapes, and in the southern countries, especially a lot of tomatoes and peppers, plums, peaches and grapes are grown, a significant part of which is intended for export, including to the northern part of the region.

During the post-war period, a significant increase in crop production and a change in its structure in favor of forage crops contributed to the development of livestock farming and an increase in the share of its products in total agricultural production. In Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary, breeding large cattle and pigs. They have higher slaughter weight of livestock and average milk yield. In the southern group of countries, the general level of livestock husbandry is lower, and pastoralism and sheep breeding are common.

There is also an opinion that the countries of this region should be classified as either Central or Middle Europe, since it would be more correct to call Eastern Europe Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova and the European part of Russia.

But the name “Eastern Europe” stuck with the countries of this region and is recognized throughout the world.

Geographical position. Natural resources

An important feature of all countries in the region is their transit position between the countries of Western Europe and the CIS.

The countries of Eastern Europe differ from each other in geographical location, configuration, size of the territory, wealth of natural resources.

In general, it must be said that the region is experiencing a shortage of resources, and in addition, it is a striking example of the “incompleteness” of a set of minerals. Thus, Poland has large reserves of coal, copper ores, and sulfur, but almost no oil, gas, or iron ore. In Bulgaria, on the contrary, there is no coal, although there are significant reserves of lignite, copper ores, and polymetals.

Population

In some countries, natural increase is higher than the regional average (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia), and it is the largest in Albania - 20%.

The most big country region - Poland (about 40 million people), the smallest is Estonia (about 1.5 million people).

The population of Eastern Europe is complex ethnic composition, but one can note the predominance of Slavic peoples. Of the other peoples, the most numerous are Romanians, Albanians, Hungarians, and Lithuanians. The most homogeneous national composition Poland, Hungary, Albania are different. Lithuania.

Farm

Such results became possible thanks to the implementation of regional policy.

Such results became possible thanks to the implementation of regional policy.

Due to the diversity of soil and climatic conditions, several zones of crop production can be distinguished: wheat is grown everywhere, but in the north (Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) rye and potatoes play an important role, in the central part of the subregion vegetable growing and horticulture are cultivated, and the “southern” countries specialize on subtropical crops.

The main crops grown in the region are wheat, corn, vegetables, and fruits.

The main wheat and corn regions of Eastern Europe were formed within the Middle and Lower Danube lowlands and the Danube hilly plain (Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria).

Hungary has achieved the greatest success in grain growing.

Vegetables, fruits, and grapes are cultivated almost everywhere in the subregion, but there are areas where they primarily determine the specialization of agriculture. These countries and regions also have their own specialization in terms of product range.

For example, Hungary is famous for its winter varieties of apples, grapes, and onions; Bulgaria - oilseeds; Czech Republic - hops, etc.

Animal husbandry.

Animal husbandry.

Transport

The countries of Eastern Europe can be conditionally divided into 3 groups according to the commonality of their EGP, resources, and level of development.

1. Intraregional differences

2. The countries of Eastern Europe can be conditionally divided into 3 groups according to the commonality of their EGP, resources, and level of development.

3. Northern group: Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia. These countries are still characterized by a low degree of integration, but there are common tasks in the development of the maritime economy.

Natural resources of Eastern Europe

The countries of Eastern Europe represent a single natural-territorial area stretching from the Baltic to the Black and Adriatic Seas. At the heart of the region and adjacent countries is an ancient Precambrian platform, overlain by a cover of sedimentary rocks, as well as an area of alpine folding.

An important feature of all countries in the region is their transit position between the countries of Western Europe and the CIS.

From stock natural resources stand out: coal (Poland, Czech Republic), oil and natural gas (Romania), iron ores (countries of the former Yugoslavia, Romania, Slovakia), bauxite (Hungary), chromite (Albania).

Population of Eastern Europe

The region's population is about 130 million people, but the demographic situation, which is difficult throughout Europe, is the most alarming in Eastern Europe. Despite the active demographic policy, natural population growth is very small (less than 2%) and continues to decline. Bulgaria and Hungary are even experiencing natural population decline. In some countries, natural increase is higher than the regional average (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia), and it is the largest in Albania - 20%.

The population of Eastern Europe has a complex ethnic composition, but one can note the predominance of Slavic peoples. Of the other peoples, the most numerous are Romanians, Albanians, Hungarians, and Lithuanians. Poland, Hungary, and Albania have the most homogeneous national composition. Lithuania. Eastern Europe has always been an arena of national and ethnic conflicts. After the collapse of the socialist system, the situation became more complicated, especially on the territory of the most multinational country in the region - Yugoslavia, where the conflict escalated into an interethnic war.

Economy of Eastern Europe

The countries of Eastern Europe today are not characterized by a pronounced socio-economic unity. But in general we can say that in the 2nd half of the 20th century. The economies of Eastern Europe have undergone major changes. Firstly, industries developed at a faster pace - by the 1980s, Eastern Europe had become one of the most industrial regions of the world, and secondly, previously very backward regions also began to develop industrially.

Metallurgy in Eastern Europe

Mechanical engineering in Eastern Europe

The industry is also represented in all countries, but is most developed in the Czech Republic (primarily machine tool manufacturing, production of household appliances and computer equipment); Poland and Romania are distinguished by the production of metal-intensive machines and structures, Hungary, Bulgaria, Latvia - by the electrical industry; In addition, shipbuilding is developed in Poland and Estonia.

Chemical industry in Eastern Europe

Agriculture in Eastern Europe

Due to the diversity of soil and climatic conditions, several zones of crop production can be distinguished: wheat is grown everywhere, but in the north (Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) rye and potatoes play an important role, in the central part of Eastern Europe vegetable growing and horticulture are cultivated, and the “southern” countries specialize in subtropical crops.

Vegetables, fruits, and grapes are cultivated almost everywhere in Eastern Europe, but there are areas where they primarily determine the specialization of agriculture. These countries and regions also have their own specialization in terms of product range.

Industry of Eastern Europe briefly. The main branch of European industry is. Forestry and light industry

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