home Wiring Sectoral structure of the world economy classification of countries according to the level of development of industries. Sectoral and territorial structure of the world economy The sectoral structure of developed countries is characterized by

Sectoral structure of the world economy classification of countries according to the level of development of industries. Sectoral and territorial structure of the world economy The sectoral structure of developed countries is characterized by

USE section: 4.1. Sectoral structure of the economy.
Geography of the main branches of production and non-production spheres.

economy- the totality of all types of labor activity of people. - a set of closely related national economies of different countries, united by a system of international economic relations.

Sectoral structure of the economy- a set of its parts (industries and sub-sectors), characterized by certain quantitative relationships and relationships.

Branch of the economy- a set of enterprises (or institutions) that produce homogeneous products (or provide the same services).

The world economy consists of branches of production (material) and non-production (non-material) spheres.

Manufacturing- the totality of all types of production activities of people who create material wealth. It consists of:

industry (heavy, light, food);
agriculture (plant growing and animal husbandry);
transport (land, water, air)
construction.

Non-manufacturing sphere is engaged in meeting the needs of the population in various kinds of services. It consists of:

science and education;
the medicine;
connection;
finance;
trade;
mobile connection;
Internet;
tourism, etc.

The ratio between industries determines type of farm structure . At the same time, agriculture and extractive industries are classified as primary sector economy, industry, construction and manufacturing - to the secondary, services - to the tertiary.

The ratio between industries is determined by:

their share in the total volume of production (share in GDP);
the number of employees and the value of fixed production assets (machines, equipment, etc. used in material production).

If the primary sector predominates, this type of farm structure is called agricultural . He dominated the world until the beginning of the XVIII century. Today it is represented in the least developed countries of Asia and Africa, where the share of Agriculture and related industries.

If the secondary sector predominates, this type of economic structure is called industrial . Its formation began in the 18th century. in Europe with the beginning of the industrial revolution. Until the middle of the XX century. was characteristic of all economically developed countries. But with the development of science and technology, these countries, one after another, parted with the industrial type of sectoral structure, in connection with which a special term arose - deindustrialization .

Today, the industrial structure of the economy is typical for some CIS countries, countries of Eastern Europe, individual oil-producing countries and developing countries in Asia and Latin America. But in them the share of industry, as well as the share of agriculture, continues to decline, giving way to the non-productive sphere.

If the tertiary sector predominates, this type of economic structure is called post-industrial (informational). It began to take shape in the second half of the 20th century. with the beginning of the era of the scientific and technological revolution (NTR).

By type of structure, the world economy is post-industrial.

In addition to highly developed countries, small countries and microstates also have a post-industrial structure of the economy, which live off tourism and the provision of various kinds of trade and financial services. They are often referred to as "landlord" countries. Examples are: Panama, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Jordan, the Bahamas and Seychelles, the Republic of Maldives, etc.

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The world economy can be considered, on the one hand, as a set of national economies that differ in the level of development, the structure of the national economy, its organization, on the other hand, as a system of international economic relations penetrating the boundaries of national economies, linking them into a single whole. [Korolchuk, Gurko, p. nine]

The sectoral structure of the economy is understood as the totality of its parts (industries and sub-sectors), historically formed as a result of the social division of labor. It is characterized by share percentage indicators in relation to either the employment of the economically active population, or to the produced GDP. When studying the sectoral structure of the world economy, it is customary to distinguish its three levels - macro-, meso- and microlevels. Accordingly, they speak of the macrostructure, mesostructure and microstructure of the economy. [Maksokovsky, 1 hour, p.170]

The macrostructure (macro-branch structure) of the world economy reflects its largest and most important internal proportions - between the production and non-production spheres, between industry and agriculture, and some others. It is these proportions that primarily determine the attribution of a country to the agrarian, industrial or post-industrial stage of development. At the pre-industrial stage, the agrarian structure of the economy dominated, at the industrial stage - industrial, and the post-industrial stage is characterized by its own, post-industrial, structure.

The agrarian type of the macro-sectoral structure of the economy is characterized by the predominance of agriculture and related industries. Since the modern world is of different stages, in relation to agriculture it is perhaps the most contrasting. At one extreme are post-industrial countries, where the share of agriculture in GDP has already fallen to 1-5%, and in the employment of the economically active population - up to 3-8%. [Maksakovsky, 1 hour, p.170] At the other extreme, the least developed countries of Asia and Africa still remain, where the share of agriculture in GDP remains at the level of 2/5 to 3/5. [Maksakovsky, 1 hour, p.170] In terms of employment, it is even greater: average employment in agriculture for both Africa and Asia is almost 60%, and in Nepal, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Rwanda it exceeds 9/10. [Maksakovsky, 1 hour, p.170]

The industrial type of macro-sectoral structure, which is characterized by a large share of industry and construction, until the middle of the 20th century. was typical for all economically developed countries. The industrial structure of the economy continues to be preserved in some countries with economies in transition.

The post-industrial type of the macro-industrial structure of the economy began to take shape already in the era of scientific and technological revolution. Its most characteristic feature is the change in the ratio between the production (material) and non-productive (non-material) spheres in favor of the latter. The non-productive sphere combines a wide range of different types of economic activity aimed at meeting the personal needs of the population, the needs of production, and the needs of society as a whole. Sometimes this area is subdivided into service industries, social services, finance, public administration and defense.

It can be added that if we consider the indicators not of GDP, but of employment of the economically active population, then the share of the service sector in most cases will be even greater. For example, in the USA, Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, Israel, it exceeds 70%. [Maksakovskiy, 1 hour, p.172]

From what has been said, it follows that the diversity of stages described above is quite clearly tied to the three main types of countries modern world. Economically developed countries are leading in terms of the share of the service sector in the economy, developing countries - agriculture, and countries with economies in transition - industry and construction (Table 1.3.1).

In the context of individual countries and regions, global indicators are also of great interest. Based on data on the structure of the economically active population, they are included in Table 1.3.1, based on data on the structure of GDP, they are shown in Figure 1.3.1.

In Western, and more recently in domestic scientific literature, when characterizing the sectoral structure of the economy, its division into three sectors is widely used - primary, secondary and tertiary. The primary sector of the economy includes industries related to the use of natural conditions and resources - agriculture and forestry, fishing, and extractive industries. The secondary sector covers all sectors of the manufacturing industry and construction. The tertiary sector includes service industries. The growth of industries in this sphere has led to the fact that sometimes they also began to single out a quaternary sector, which absorbed the latest types of information activities.

The mesostructure (meso-industry structure) of the world economy reflects the main proportions emerging within industry, agriculture, and the service sector.

Thus, in the structure of world industry, under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, there is a gradual decrease in the share of extractive industries and an increase in the share of manufacturing industries. The structure of industry is also affected by the outstripping rates of development of industries that primarily ensure scientific and technological progress - mechanical engineering, the chemical industry and the electric power industry.

Even more significant structural shifts at the mesolevel are characteristic of the service sector. They are associated both with different growth rates of demand for various types of services, and with the emergence of completely new types of them. The demand for socio-cultural services related to education, healthcare, maintenance of people's free time, household services, services in the field of transport, communications, credit and finance, etc. is growing quite rapidly. The need for a range of business services is growing even faster, which includes a marketing and advertising service, services for the protection and maintenance of premises, for accounting operations, insurance, etc. And the consulting business is growing very rapidly: developing and providing clients with scientific solutions to various economic problems - in the form of information, expertise, consultations or direct participation in management, market research.

The microstructure (microbranch structure) of material production reflects the shifts taking place in certain types and subspecies of such production, primarily industrial. At the same time, the latest science-intensive types of mechanical engineering and the chemical industry are increasingly coming to the fore - such as the production of electronic computers, automation equipment, aerospace, laser technology, equipment for nuclear energy, and the production of microbiological preparations. It is under the influence of shifts in the microstructure that diversification (crushing) of the structure of the economy occurs to the greatest extent. The highest level of such diversification is in the United States. They are followed by Japan, Germany and other developed countries.

Thus, the sectoral structure of the world economy can be characterized by:

* the macro level, which reflects the largest and most important internal proportions - between the production and non-production spheres, between industry and agriculture, and some others .;

* meso-level, which reflects the main proportions that develop within industry, agriculture, and the service sector;

* the micro level, which reflects the shifts taking place in certain types and subtypes of material production, primarily industrial.

The formation of the world economy is the result of a thousand-year evolution of the productive forces. That is why it is possible to single out a long stage in the prehistory of the world economy, and then the stages of its emergence (XVI century), formation (end of the XIX century) and in the XX century. stages of its primary development.

As for the sectoral structure of the world economy, it is relatively dynamic and subject to changes, primarily related to the course of scientific and technological progress.

Sectoral structure of the economy- the totality of its parts (industries and sub-sectors), historically formed as a result of the social division of labor. It is measured in relative terms and is expressed as the share of individual industries and sub-sectors in the total volume of all production (by value). The sectoral structure of the economy can also be judged by the structure of employment of the economically active population.

The acceleration of scientific and technological progress constantly makes new, ever higher demands on the economy and society of various countries participating in the world economy, creates tension in the interconnections of its divisions. At present, there is every reason to talk not only about the emergence, but also about the deepening of the structural crisis of the world economy.

The world economy is a complex, mobile system that is in constant change. Therefore, today the internationalization of the world economy has reached a new level, which is facilitated by the processes of integration. Enormous shifts have taken place in the development of the productive forces. World production is almost twice as fast as population growth. Under the influence of scientific and technological progress, qualitative transformations of the world's productive forces are taking place. There is a technological revolution going on in the industrialized countries. Informatics and communications, modern automation and the use of robots, new artificial materials (polymers, composites, ceramics, etc.) have changed the face of production and products. Under the influence of scientific and technological progress, there have been profound structural shifts in the economy, in the industrialized countries of the West, the transition to an intensive type of reproduction has been completed.

Economic development as a consequence of the mobility of the world economy system is inextricably linked with a change in the relationship between sectors and branches of the national economy. In some cases, without transformations in the sectoral structure, further development is impossible, which is typical for the process of transformation of post-socialist countries. In others, structural changes are the result of economic growth. There is a functional relationship between economic growth and changes in the sectoral structure, so the sectoral structure of the world economy is under the close attention of analysts. However, this problem is not covered in sufficient detail in the literature, because most economists are trying to analyze not the sectoral structure itself, but the reasons that entail its current state (the international division of labor at the present stage, integration processes, the impact of scientific and technological progress). ).

Quantification and territorial aspect of specialized industries

An important influence on the functioning of the sectoral structure of the economic system is exerted by the distribution of resources throughout the world, as well as the organizational forms in which the use of resources takes place. The national economic complex of a single country is characterized by a complex structure, in which, along with branch it is necessary to highlight an equally important structure - territorial.

The territorial structure is understood as the division of the national economy system into territorial cells (taxons) - zones, regions of different ranks, industrial centers, nodes. The territorial structure changes much more slowly than the sectoral structure, since its main elements are more strongly tied to a specific territory. However, the development of new territories with unique natural resources changes the structure of individual regions and contributes to the formation of new territorial complexes.

The spatial combination of industries and individual industries is formed under the influence of many factors. These include the availability of resources: mineral raw materials, fuel and energy, material, labor. The noted factors are closely interconnected, having a certain impact on the location of enterprises and sectors of the national economy. In the process of locating production, various forms of territorial organization have developed. Allocate large economic zones, industrial areas, industrial agglomerations, industrial units, industrial centers and industrial points.

Analysis of the sectoral structure of the economy produced on the basis of GDP calculated by industry. First of all, the relationship between the major national economic sectors of material and non-material production is being studied. This ratio is revealed primarily by the share of the manufacturing industry.

Great importance also has a study of the structure of individual industries. Thus, a sectoral analysis of the manufacturing industry shows what proportion it is occupied by mechanical engineering and chemistry, i.e., industries that ensure scientific and technological progress. The diversification of leading industries is great. For example, the number of machine-building industries and industries in the industrialized countries of the world reaches 150–200 or more, and only 10–15 in countries with a relatively low level of economic development. The share of large economic complexes is also analyzed: fuel and energy, agro-industrial, building and construction materials, defense, military-industrial, etc.

Not a single work related to the economy of the region can do without the definition of specialized industries. To do this, one should use theoretically substantiated indicators that are closely related to other indicators of the territorial division of labor. Since market specialization is based on the territorial division of social labor, therefore, the definition of specializing industries should be based on identifying the share of the region's participation in the social division of labor.

For quantification the level of specialization of economic regions, such indicators as the coefficient of localization, the coefficient of per capita production and the coefficient of inter-district marketability are used. Also, one of the main criteria for the location of industries in a certain territory is an indicator of their economic efficiency (the cost of production, taking into account its delivery to the consumer, specific capital investments per unit of capacity and profit).

Along with the indicated indicators for each branch of production, a system of technical and economic indicators of its location is being developed. Of great importance for justifying the location of production are the provision of workers with basic production assets, power-to-weight ratio, reserves of resources, etc.

Three levels of industry structure

There are three levels of industry structure: macrostructure, mesostructure and microstructure. The scientific and technological revolution (STR) had a great impact on the structure of the world economy, this can be seen on the example of each of the levels.

macrostructure reflects the largest economic proportions between the production and non-production spheres, between industry, construction, agriculture, transport, etc. It is these proportions that determine what type the country will be classified as: agricultural, industrial or post-industrial.

If before the industrial revolutions of the XVIII-XIX centuries. the agrarian structure prevailed in the world economy, then from the second half of the 19th century. an industrial structure began to take shape (first in economically developed countries).

Under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution, the formation post-industrial (or informational) structure, which is characterized by a change in the proportion between the production and non-production spheres in favor of the latter. In economically developed countries, the process of increasing the share of industry gives way to its reduction for the absolute number of people employed in material production as a whole. At the same time, there is a growth in the non-material sphere - the sphere of services, science, education, culture - the number of people employed in it begins to exceed the number of people employed in the manufacturing sector. In terms of the share of people employed in the non-manufacturing sector, the United States leads (2/3 of all employed).

The massive introduction of scientific and technological innovations has caused great progressive shifts in structure of material production. They manifested themselves, first of all, in the change in the ratio between industry and agriculture in favor of the former. This is due to the fact that the growth of labor productivity in all other sectors of the economy depends on the development of industry, as well as the increase in the intensity of agriculture, which is acquiring an increasingly industrial character. The decrease in the share of agriculture in the structure of the economy occurs primarily in economically developed countries. Scientific renewal in this industry has led to an increase in labor productivity, a reduction in the number of people employed in agriculture, and the formation of agribusiness.

mesostructure of material production reflects the main proportions emerging within industry, agriculture, etc. /4 of the industry's gross output), the role of industrial and fodder crops, vegetables, and fruits is increasing in crop production.

In the structure of world industry, under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, there is a gradual increase in the share of manufacturing and a change in the share of extractive industries, which is associated with a decrease in production capacity, an increase in the share of synthetic raw materials. But global trends and performance hide significant differences between economically developed and developing countries.

Microindustry structure reflects the shifts taking place in certain types of production, primarily industrial. The latest science-intensive types of mechanical engineering and the chemical industry, such as the production of electronic computers, motor vehicles, aerospace, laser technology, equipment for nuclear energy, etc., are increasingly coming to the fore.

In the structure of world material production, there has also been a tendency towards the formation of intersectoral complexes.

test questions

1. The concept of the sectoral structure of the world economy.

2. Levels of branch structure.

3. Scientific and technological revolution and material production.

4. Features of the analysis of the sectoral structure.

5. Quantitative indicators of the specialization of economic regions.

Sectoral structure of the world economy. Classification of countries according to the level of development of industries

the structure of the modern economy; dynamics of development of the structure of modern industry; classification of countries by level of development

The concept of sectoral structure of the economy

The structure of the economy is a multifaceted concept, it can be considered from different points of view, showing the ratio of various elements of the economic system. Usually, social, sectoral, reproductive, regional (territorial) and foreign trade structures are distinguished.

The sectoral structure of the economy in a broad sense is a set of qualitatively homogeneous groups of economic units, characterized by special conditions of production in the system of social division of labor and playing a specific role in the process of expanded reproduction.

Sectoral shifts at the macro level, if considered in a long historical framework, manifested themselves first in the rapid growth of "primary industries" (agriculture and mining), then "secondary" (industry and construction), and in the last period - "tertiary industries" ( services sector).

International Standard Industry Classification

In world practice, the basis for the formation of the structural elements of the economy are the international standard industry classification of all types of economic activity and the international standard classification of occupations that are components of the system of national accounts (SNA). The SNA provides for the use of two types of classifications by industry and by sector. Grouping by industry provides a description of the sectoral structure of the economy, allows you to establish the contribution of each industry to the creation of GDP, trace inter-sectoral relationships and proportions. Grouping by sectors of the economy, formed depending on the functions performed by economic units in the economic process, allows you to analyze the processes in the field of distribution and redistribution of income, investment financing. Thus, the accounts of the "households" sector contain the data necessary to analyze the most important aspects of social processes and living standards (income distribution, consumption, savings, etc.),
and the role of the household sector in generating and using gross domestic product. A special place in the system of national accounts is occupied by intersectoral balances, which is due to the wide possibilities that they represent for analyzing the dynamics and structure of the economy, basic cost and natural-material proportions, conducting international comparisons, and performing predictive economic calculations. Depending on the goals of economic analysis, intersectoral balances can include from several tens to several thousand industries.

Basic branches of the modern world economy

The basic industries for the development of intersectoral balances are industry, agriculture, construction, trade, transport and communications, and other industries (they mainly include service industries). Each branch of the economy is in turn divided
into the so-called integrated branches, branches and types of production.
Each of the enlarged industries includes homogeneous, but specialized industries in the production of certain types of products.

When attributing an enterprise, types of production and services to a particular sector of the economy, the purpose of the product or services, the type of basic raw material and material, and the nature of the technological process are taken into account. In a number of cases, difficulties arise in attributing a particular sector of the economy to a particular industry. This is due to the fact that as a result of specialization, products that are homogeneous in purpose are often manufactured using different technologies, from a variety of raw materials, etc. In addition, there is a process of penetration of techniques and methods
from one industry to another. From the same raw materials, products of the most diverse purposes are produced.

Each production is characterized by a certain range of manufactured products. differentiated classification,
which is based on the type of product and type of production, followed by their integration into industries, consolidated industries and sectors of the economy, facilitates the continuity of classification in a developing international division labor.

Dynamics of development of the structure of modern industry at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries.

Industry is the main, leading branch of material production, in which the predominant part of the gross domestic product and national income is created. For example, in modern conditions, the share of industry in the total GDP of developed countries is about 40%. The leading role of industry is also due to the fact that from the success
its development depends on the degree of satisfaction of the needs of society
in high-quality products, ensuring technical re-equipment and intensification of production.

Modern industry consists of many independent branches of production, each of which includes a large group of related enterprises and production associations, located in some cases at a considerable territorial distance from each other. The sectoral structure of industry is characterized by the composition of industries, their quantitative ratios, expressing certain production relationships between them. In the process of statistical accounting and analysis, the sectoral structure of industry is usually determined by finding the share of sectors in the total volume of production, the number of employees, and the value of the fixed production assets of industry.

Among the listed indicators, with the help of which the sectoral structure of the industry is determined, the main indicator is the volume of production. It makes it possible to more objectively judge not only the correlation of industries, but also their interrelations, the dynamics of the sectoral structure of industry. Determining the sectoral structure of industry in terms of the number of employees, one should have
in mind that in this case a somewhat different picture will be obtained, which does not quite accurately characterize the real share of industries in general industrial production: the share of more labor-intensive industries will be overestimated, and vice versa, the share of industries with a high level of mechanization and automation will be underestimated. Industry structure calculated
using an indicator of the value of fixed assets, mainly reflects the production and technical level of industries.

The sectoral structure of industry reflects the level industrial development country and its economic independence, the degree of technical equipment of the industry and the leading role of this industry in the economy as a whole. A more perfect sectoral structure of industry to a certain extent characterizes the efficiency of industrial production. The progressiveness of the structure of industry is judged both by the composition and relative weight of the industries included in the industry, and by how perfect the intra-industry structure of a particular industry, that is, to what extent the most progressive industries are represented and developed in this industry.

Changes in the sectoral structure of industry
world economy

The interconnections of industries, the proportions that have developed between them, are determined by the mode of production, as well as the cumulative effect on its basis of many other factors. The most important of these factors that determine changes in the sectoral structure of industry include:

Scientific and technological progress and the degree of implementation of its results

into production;

The level of social division of labor, the development of specialization

Characteristics of the sectoral structure
developing and post-socialist countries

Newly industrialized and post-socialist countries are at approximately the same level of economic development as in terms of GDP
per capita, and by sectoral structure of the economy. These two groups of countries retain a relatively high share of agriculture (6-10% of GDP), which is gradually approaching the level of developed countries (2-4%). The share of industry in the GDP of both groups of countries (25–40%) is at the level of post-industrial countries and even exceeds it. This is due to the relatively low level of the service sector (45–55% of GDP).

In the sectoral structure of the GDP of developing countries, the share of agriculture is still large (20–35%). The share of industry in the GDP of these countries is most often small (10–25%), and it is higher mainly in the countries exporting minerals and fuels, while the share of the manufacturing industry fluctuates in the range of 5–15%.

Major shifts in the structure of the economies of developed countries

In the economies of developed countries at the stage of post-industrial development, the share of the service sector (tertiary sector) has significantly increased and the share of material production (primary and secondary sectors) has decreased. In the structure of the GDP of these countries in the 60–90s. the share of agriculture steadily decreased (from 6.5% in 1960 to 4.2% in 1980 and 3% in 1995). Along with the noted long-term trend, these shifts are also explained by the fact that, under the influence of scientific and technological progress, many types of activity have spun off from agriculture and separated them into special branches of industry and the service sector. At the same time, agriculture, industry and trade are being integrated into the agro-industrial complex, which is a new type of industrial relations.

Table 4.1.

GDP structure of individual industrialized countries, %.

Country	years	Agriculture	Industry	Services sector


Germany

The share of the manufacturing industry in GDP increases until a certain level of per capita income is reached - approximately the level of highly developed countries in the late 60s. (13-15 thousand dollars), and then it stabilizes or decreases. The most significant reduction occurred from the mid-1960s. USA, UK, France. In countries that began industrialization somewhat later (Japan, Italy), the share of manufacturing industries continued to grow until the early 1970s, but then began to decline.

The most important trend of change structure of GDP industrialized countries in the second half of the 20th century. was the transformation of the non-productive sphere (tertiary sector) into the predominant part of their economy. The volume of transactions in the service sector exceeded the volume of production in the manufacturing industry in these countries (Table 4.1).

The concept of the agro-industrial complex

Agriculture and related industries - forestry, hunting, fishing - are not only the oldest, but also the most common occupation of people. About 1.1 billion people of the economically active population are employed in world agriculture, including only 22 million people in developed countries, in countries with economies in transition -
32 million people (including 20 million people in the CIS member countries and
in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe - 12 million people), in China - 450 million and in developing countries - about 600 million people.

In the most developed countries with economies in transition and in the newly industrialized states, commercial, predominantly intensive agriculture predominates. In other developing countries (except for the newly industrialized countries), a significant share of subsistence farming in the agro-industrial sector remains.

In the developed and post-socialist countries in recent decades, there has been a process of agro-industrial integration, which means the organizational and commercial association of agricultural and industrial enterprises. As a result of this process, the agro-industrial complex (AIC) is being formed. This complex is a single system of agricultural and industrial enterprises, united by close and stable industrial and commercial ties based on property relations or contracts.

The agro-industrial complex covers the entire production chain and includes three areas:

Sphere 1 - industry that produces means of production for agriculture, as well as providing production and technical services to this industry;

Sphere 2 - agriculture proper (agriculture and animal husbandry);

Sphere 3 - industries for transportation, processing and marketing of food and agricultural raw materials.

In highly developed countries, the share of the agro-industrial complex is steadily growing (in the United States, it forms about 75% of the total cost of food products), and the share of agricultural production itself is decreasing. In general, in the mid-1990s the ratio between the three areas of the agro-industrial complex in developed countries was 3:1:6. As a result, US agriculture provides about 2% of GDP and employs 2.5% of the workforce, while the entire agro-industrial complex supplies 18% of GDP and employs about 20% of the country's workforce. In countries with economies in transition, the share of agriculture
in the structure of the agro-industrial complex is much higher than in Western countries, which reflects the poor development of the processing of agricultural raw materials, including the food industry. Thus, about 30% of workers are employed in the agro-industrial complex of Russia, including 15% in agriculture, and the share of this industry in GDP is 6.7% (1997).

In developing countries, traditional consumer (or subsistence) agriculture predominates. The traditional sector is represented by hundreds of millions of small allotments, the production of which is mainly enough to feed a peasant family. Primitive agriculture dominates, in which the main tools for tilling the soil are a wooden plow and a hoe. At least 20 million families practice slash-and-burn agriculture.

At the same time, in many developing countries, a highly commercial sector has developed, represented by plantations of some tropical and subtropical crops (coffee, cocoa, tea, natural rubber, bananas, sugar cane, etc.), but the plantation sector is focused more on export than on the domestic market.

Technological base of agriculture

The world tractor fleet in the mid-90s. amounted to approximately
26-27 million cars. But in developed countries, which account for 2/3 of this park, it has practically not grown recently. The reason for this lies in the achievement of the maximum level of mechanization of agriculture for modern technology and the orientation not on the number of tractors, but on the quality and structure of the tractor fleet.

Chemicalization is another direction of agricultural intensification. It reached the highest level, measured in the most general form by the consumption of fertilizers per 1 ha of arable land and perennial plantations, in Germany (418 kg), the Netherlands (773 kg), and Japan (387 kg).
In countries with large land resources, the specific consumption of fertilizers is much lower (in Canada - 12 kg, in Australia - 28 kg).
Developed countries account for 85% of total fertilizer consumption,
including the share of the USA - 45%, Western Europe- 28%, Japan - 12%. Moreover, in recent years there has been a stabilization of the use mineral fertilizers, and in a number of countries an absolute reduction in their use (France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, etc.). Ecologically clean agricultural products, grown either with minimal use of mineral fertilizers, or without them at all, are in the greatest demand today.

The process of transferring agriculture to an industrial basis was carried out in the USA, Canada, Great Britain before the Second World War, in most other countries of Western Europe and Japan - in the 50s, in the USSR and the countries of Central and Eastern Europe - by the end of the 70s. x years. Highly developed countries are currently at a new stage in the transformation of agricultural production - at the stage of the "biotechnological revolution", which is characterized by the widespread use of biotechnology.

Agriculture, which at the beginning of the 20th century. everywhere was a labor-intensive industry, in industrialized countries in the 40-60s. became a capital intensive industry. Currently, it is turning from capital-intensive to knowledge-intensive, primarily in developed countries.

"Green Revolution", which began in the 60s. in developing countries, it is the transformation of agriculture on the basis of modern agricultural technology. It includes three components: breeding of new varieties of crops, primarily cereals; expansion of irrigated lands; raising the level of mechanization of agriculture, the massive use of mineral fertilizers and chemical plant protection products. As a result of the "Green Revolution", grain crop yields increased by 2-3 times, China, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, Thailand and some other countries became self-sufficient.

Structure of world agricultural production

Agriculture in almost all countries of the world consists of two large interrelated industries: agriculture (plant growing) and animal husbandry. The ratio between these industries is changing under the influence of shifts in industrialized countries that have led to the predominance of animal husbandry over crop production. Thus, in Sweden and Finland, livestock accounts for 75–80% of gross agricultural output. In the US, the share of animal husbandry is noticeably lower - about 55%, in France - 53%. The exception is the Mediterranean countries, including Italy, where this industry produces 40-42% of agricultural products, which is largely determined by insufficiently favorable conditions for animal husbandry. natural conditions.

animal husbandry

In developed countries and countries with economies in transition, intensive dairy and meat animal husbandry is widespread. The content of livestock here is stall or pasture-stall. Concentrated feeds are widely used. In many highly developed countries, agriculture, specializing
on fodder crops, subordinated to animal husbandry (for example,
in the US Corn and Soybean Belt).

The transition to industrial methods, the improvement of the fodder base, and the success of selection have led to a significant increase in the productivity of animal husbandry. The milk yield from one cow was in 1996 (thousand kg):
in the USA - 6.7; Denmark - 6.3; Sweden - 6.2; Japan - 5.2. In the same time
in Russia, this figure in 1996-1997. was 2.8 thousand kg, Argentina - 2.6; China - 1.6; Mongolia - 0.35. The industrialized countries surpass the developing countries in terms of milk yield per cow by 6 times, and in meat yield by 1.5 times.

The highest milk production per capita in the mid-90s. (in kg) was achieved in New Zealand (2400), the Netherlands (900), Belarus (700), France (490), Germany (450). In Russia, this figure was 300 kg. The highest meat production per capita (in kg) was noted in the Netherlands (200), Australia (180), USA (125), Argentina (125), Germany (110), France (110). In Russia, this figure in the mid-90s. was about 40 kg.

Animal husbandry prevails in the countries of the Near and Middle East,
as well as in Argentina and Uruguay. In these countries, it is mainly extensive in nature, pasture cattle breeding prevails.

Agriculture

The main branch of agriculture is the cultivation of grain crops, the production of which in the second half of the XX century. has grown significantly. If in 1900-1949. (inclusive) it increased from 500 to 800 million tons, then in 1950–1995. - from 800 to 2000 million tons. A significant role in this was played by a sharp increase in grain production in China, India, and the countries of Southeast Asia.

More than 30% of the gross grain harvest is produced in developed countries
in the world. Developed countries are leading in two important indicators. First, in terms of grain yield (c/ha), on average for 1990-1997: Japan - 54, USA - 47, EU (in general) - 46 (for comparison, in Russia - 14-16). Secondly, in terms of grain harvest per capita (kg): Canada - 2125; Australia - 1320; USA - 1250; France - 1050 (in Russia - 790).

Globally, 55% of grain is consumed for human consumption and 45% goes
for livestock feed. The use of grain in countries depends on their level of development. In developed countries, less than 25% of the grain goes to food, and the rest goes to feed livestock and poultry. In developing countries, up to 90% of grain is used
for food needs.

In the structure of the gross grain harvest, three crops dominate: wheat (28%), rice (26%) and corn (25%). The diet is dominated by rice (21%) and wheat (20%), while the share of corn is small (5%), since most of it is used for livestock feed.

World trade in agricultural products

The share of agricultural products in world exports has been steadily declining in recent decades: for food products from 13%
in 1970 to 9% in 1996, for agricultural raw materials - from 7%
up to 2.5%. This decline is explained, firstly, by the success in food self-sufficiency in Western and Central Europe, China and India,
and secondly, the use of substitutes instead of natural agricultural raw materials. In addition, in recent decades there has been a pronounced trend towards faster growth in trade in ready-to-eat food products.

In the world export of food products, the share of developed countries remained almost unchanged (72.4% in 1970 and 72.1% in 1996), while the share of developing countries during this time increased from 17.5% to 20.9% , while the share of countries with economies in transition, on the contrary, decreased from 9.9% to 6.6%.

World export resources of grain are annually about 200 million tons (10-11% of the gross harvest), including 90-100 million tons of wheat, 60-70 million tons of corn, 15-20 million tons of rice. The main exporters of wheat are the USA, Canada, France, Australia and Argentina, and corn - the USA. The largest importers of wheat are China, Japan, Brazil, and Egypt. Thailand, the USA, Vietnam, Myanmar, Pakistan are the leaders in world rice exports, while Indonesia, Bangladesh, Iran, North Korea, Saudi Arabia, and Brazil are significant importers.

The largest importer of grain in the 70-80s. was the Soviet Union (the average annual volume of purchases in 1986-1990 reached 32.4 million tons, or 16.9% of the gross grain harvest in the USSR for the same years). Russia in 1990–1991 imported 20 million tons of grain annually, in 1992 - 27 million tons, but in 1993, due to a decrease in demand for feed grain, imports decreased to 11 million tons, and in 1994-1997. disappeared altogether.

The main suppliers of beef are Australia, Brazil, the Netherlands, Canada and the USA; lamb - Australia and New Zealand; broken bird - USA, France, Brazil. More than 5 million heads of large cattle, 9-10 million pigs and 15 million sheep. The main exporters of live breeding stock are the USA, Canada and EU member states.

The annual volume of world trade in dairy products exceeds 11 million tons. The Netherlands, Ireland, Denmark and France are leaders in the export of cheese, and oils - New Zealand, the Netherlands, Ireland, Denmark. Russia is a major importer of dairy products.

Fuel and energy complex (FEC).
The main trends in the development of the fuel and energy complex

With the growth of population and production, the world consumption of primary energy resources increases (billion tons of standard fuel): 1950 - 3.9; 1960 - 4.7; 1970 - 6.8; 1980 - 8.7; 1990 - 10.3; 1997 - 11.9. The average annual growth rate of energy consumption in the world in the first half of the XX century. accounted for 2–3%, and in 1950–1975. - already 5%. The increase in energy consumption was ensured by a rapid increase in oil and natural gas production (that was the era of "cheap oil", when in the period from 1952 to 1972 its prices on the world market were only $14 per 1 ton).

However, in 1973, an energy crisis broke out, as a result of which the world oil price jumped to $250–300 per 1 ton. , Sahara, Siberia), on the continental shelf. Another reason was the desire of developing oil exporting countries (OPEC members) to use their position as owners of the majority of the world's oil reserves.

The leading countries of the world, especially the developed ones, were forced to reconsider the concepts of energy development. If before the energy crisis the forecasts of energy consumption in the world for 2000 amounted to 20-25 billion tons of standard fuel, then after the energy crisis of the 1970s. they were adjusted towards a noticeable decrease (according to the last of them - to 12.4 billion tons of standard fuel). At the center of economic strategy
Since then, there has been energy conservation, which includes not only a reduction in the consumption of oil as an energy resource, but also a restructuring of the sectoral structure of industry by curtailing energy-intensive industries.

As a result, the average annual growth rate of consumption of primary energy resources has noticeably decreased in developed countries: from 1.8% in the 1980s. up to 1.45% in 1991–1997; according to the forecast for 1995–2015 it will not exceed 1.25%. At the same time, in socialist and post-socialist countries
no measures were taken to radically save energy resources. In developing countries, the consumption of primary energy resources in the 90s. grew even faster than before: in 1991-1997. - by an average of 3%, including in the newly industrialized countries and OPEC member countries - by 5%. Such a significant increase in energy consumption is due to higher economic growth rates in these countries, as well as the development of their basic industries, including mining, the introduction of energy-intensive technologies and a massive transition to road transport.

As a result, the energy intensity of GDP (increase in consumption of primary energy resources for each percent of GDP growth) in the 90s. was:
in developed countries - 0.6%, developing countries (including China) - 0.8%, member states of the CIS, Central and Eastern Europe - 0.9%.

Therefore, in the world consumption of primary energy resources, the share of industrialized countries has decreased from 59.5% in the late 80s. up to 51%
in 1995 and according to the forecast in 2015, it will decrease to 43%. Although per capita consumption of energy resources is high and continues to grow -
from 4803 kg of oil equivalent in 1980 to 5118 kg in 1995, the share of developing countries (including China) in total consumption increased from 21.9% to 31.4% over this period and is expected to reach 40% in 2015. ,
and the share of transition economies (except China) is declining and will reach 17% in 2015 (forecast). Economic downturn in the 90s. has led to a reduction in per capita energy consumption. So if
in 1980 in Russia the figure was 5499 kg, then in 1995 - 4079 kg.

Nuclear power plants

Nuclear energy is becoming an increasingly important source of fuel and energy resources.

Currently, there are about 140 nuclear reactors operating in the world.
Their share in the total volume of electricity production in the world during the 80s and 90s of the XX century remained at the level of 10–11%, and the share
in the consumption of nuclear fuel by the beginning of 1996 was 7.3%.

A striking example of a fundamentally new technology in the field of informatics and communications is the introduction of fiber-optic communications.
In particular, two submarine fiber-optic lines have been built: through Pacific Ocean with a length of 11.5 thousand km (USA - Hawaii - Japan) and across the Atlantic Ocean - 6.5 thousand km (USA - Western Europe).

The concept of the service sector of the world economy

The service sector includes:

Traditional industries: transport and communications, trade;

Such branches of economic activity as finance, credit and insurance, consulting, information and other business services;

Socio-cultural sectors: science and scientific service, education, medicine and Physical Culture, social services, consumer services, housing and communal services, art, culture, tourism and other recreational services.

international tourism

One of the most dynamic service industries is tourism, especially international tourism. The number of international tourists is constantly growing: in 1950 - 25 million people; in 1970 - 160; in 1990 - 420; in 1995 - 560. Tourism provides work in all countries of the world for more than 100 million people. Incomes from foreign tourism in total receipts from the export of goods and services are (%): in the USA and Great Britain - 5; France and Denmark, 7–8; Italy and Switzerland, 11–12; Portugal - over 20; Spain and Austria, 30–35. In Russia, tourism as one of the service industries is very poorly developed. The number of tourists leaving Russia abroad significantly exceeds the number of foreign tourists visiting our country. This means an unfavorable balance of foreign exchange earnings from tourism for Russia.

International trade in services

Depending on the level of development of the service sector, the countries of the world can be divided into three groups. The first group of countries with a high level of development of the service sector includes developed countries with a post-industrial economy. Medium service economies include the newly industrialized countries of Southeast Asia and Latin America,
as well as countries with economies in transition, which are characterized by a relatively high level of development of one or two branches of the service sector, with insufficient development of this sector as a whole. Most developing countries are in the low service sector group.

World export of services is characterized by the following data (trillion dollars): 1970 - 0.1; 1980 - 0.4; 1997 - 1.3, that is, it constantly increased. In the 80s and 90s. it accounted for 20–25% of all world exports of goods and services. At the same time, there have been big changes
in the structure of world exports of services: the share of transport services is gradually decreasing (from 35% in 1975 to 24% in 1996), the share of international tourism services continues to grow (from 24% to 32%, respectively).
Business services are becoming more and more widespread.

Developed countries dominate the global service market. They account for about 70% of world exports and about the same share of world imports of services. The United States stands out in particular, accounting for about 18% of all world exports of services; in their total exports of goods and services, the share of the latter approaches 30%.

The share of developing countries in world trade in services is gradually increasing. Some of them have become major exporters of services: South Korea - engineering, consulting and construction, Mexico - tourism. The share of countries with economies in transition in world exports of services is about 4%, including the share of Russia - 1%. These countries have significant opportunities for the development of tourism, transit, shipping, engineering, consulting and construction services.

SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS

1. Name the main "basic" sectors of the modern world economy.

2. What industries are science-intensive?

4. Define the transport complex of the country.

5. Name the industry specifics of developing countries.

Spiridonov Economics: Proc. allowance. - M.: INFRA-M, 1999. S. 218–222.

In order to accurately understand the essence of the world economy, you need to know what the structure of the world economy is. It is a complex dynamic mechanism consisting of numerous macroeconomic elements.

The structure of the world economy includes sectoral and intersectoral components, associations, enterprises, regions and complexes. They create the most important proportions in the production and consumption of GDP. The economic structure of the world economy consists of the relations between these components. Stable development of the world economy is impossible without an optimally developed economic structure.

In general, the structure of the world economy, as well as its national variety, is a broad and diverse concept. It includes the following substructures: sectoral, territorial, reproductive, functional and socio-economic.

The territorial structure shows how the economic activity between countries and different territories.

The reproductive structure consists of such parts as accumulation, consumption, export. It is a reflection of the state of the national economy, since the bias towards one of the components indicates the wrong state of affairs in the country's economy. For example, if 100% of manufacturing GDP goes only to consumption, this indicates an unstable economic situation in the country. The optimal ratio of consumption/accumulation/export would be 70%/25%/5%. Such proportions contribute to the development of export-import relations and minimize social tension.

The functional structure reflects the ratio of military and civilian production, which is very important for the country. Based on world experience, it can be argued that the higher the share of military production, the worse the economic situation in the country. Today, spending on military production hampers the development of many countries. The optimal figure for defense spending is 1-2% of GDP. Anything above 6% leads to the degradation of peaceful production and economic recession.

The socio-economic structure characterizes the relationship between the types of socio-economic structure. The type of way of life depends on everything; several of them are distinguished: tribal-communal (without private property), feudal (there is feudal property), small-scale (small business) and capitalist (which is characterized by large-scale industry, private capital and monopolies).

The sectoral structure of the world economy consists of a set of economic units that were formed in the process of division of labor and differ in terms of production. Macroeconomic analysis distinguishes the following main groups: industrial, agro-industrial (or agricultural), construction, manufacturing and non-manufacturing. In turn, these industries can be divided into subspecies. For example, industry is divided into mining and manufacturing.

To date, the world economy and its structure is characterized by the predominance of the share of the service sector. In the USA and Great Britain it reached 80%, in Japan and Canada - 70%, in Germany, Italy and France - about 60%. At the same time, the share of agriculture is declining, and industry makes up no more than 25-30% of GDP. Such trends are explained by rapid progress, which gave rise to the formation of new and service industries.

The former Soviet countries are located at approximately the same level of development. The economy of such states is characterized by a high share of agriculture and industry and, accordingly, a low level of services.

In the share of agriculture exceeds the share of industry. Their ratio is approximately 20-35% and 10-25%, respectively.